HowToLiveLonger/README_en.md

A programmer's guide to live longer

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• 1. Terminology
• 2. Goal
• 3. Key Result
• 4. Analysis
• 5. Action
• 6. Reference
  • 6.1. Input
    • 6.1.1. Solid
    • 6.1.2. Liquid
    • 6.1.3. Gas
    • 6.1.4. Illumination
    • 6.1.5. Medicine
  • 6.2. Output
    • 6.2.1. Racquet Sports
    • 6.2.2. Walk
    • 6.2.3. Tooth brushing
    • 6.2.4. Bath
    • 6.2.5. Housework(for aging males)
    • 6.2.6. Sleep
  • 6.3. Other
    • 6.3.1. Emotion
    • 6.3.2. Wealth
    • 6.3.3. Weight
    • 6.3.4. 2019-nCov

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1. Terminology

• ACM: All-Cause Mortality

2. Goal

• Live longer

3. Key Result

• Reduces ACM by 66.67%
• Increase life expectancy by ~20 years
• Keep dopamine at a balanced level

4. Analysis

• Main reference: There are relatively many academic papers related to ACM, which can be used as the main reference.
• The relationship between lifespan and ACM is nonlinear: Obviously, the relationship between lifespan and ACM is a nonlinear function. Assumption:DeltaLifeSpan=(1/(1+DeltaACM)-1)*10 (DeltaACM is ACM's change value. Welcome to optimize this formula)
• Variables cannot be simply superimposed: Variables do not meet the IID assumption, and the actual effect between the variables is also unclear.
• Conflicting views: All references have literature/study counterparts, but there are significant conflicting views between some of the literature(e.g. Carbohtdrate intake retio), and some of the literature are controversial(e.g. Sleep before 22:00 increases ACM by 43%)
• Research only shows correlation: Research shows more correlation than causation. Confirm whether the research adequately proves causation.
  • e.g. A research shows that people with an average of 7000 or more steps per day have a significantly lower ACM rate. However, people with fewer steps may include more long-term patients. If this part of data is not reasonably excluded, the result is distorted.

5. Action

• Input
  • Solid: Plain boiled pork(-11%~-3% ACM), Fruits and vegetables(-26%~-17% ACM), Spicy food(-23% ACM), Nuts(-27%~-4% ACM), less egg yolk(otherwise +7% ACM per 0.5 pieces per day)(controversial), moderate carbs, Vegetable protein(-10% ACM), less ultra-processed foods(-62%~-18%)
  • Liquid: Coffee(-22%~-12% ACM), Milk(-17%~-10% ACM), Tea(-15%~-8% ACM), Limit or avoid sweetened beverages(Otherwise +7% ACM per cup per day, +dopamine), Give up alcohol or less than 100g per week(pure alcohol(g)=alcohol consumption(ml)×Alcohol concentration(%)×(Alcohol density)0.8g/ml)(Otherwise +~50% ACM, unlimited)
  • Gas: No smoking(Otherwise +~50% ACM, -12~-11 years lifespan)
  • Illumination: Sunbathe(-~40% ACM)
  • Medicine: Metformin(for diabetic, +3 years lifespan), Multi-vitamins(-8% cancer risk), Spermidine(-60%~-30% ACM), Glucosamine(-39% ACM)
• Output
  • Sports: 45-minute racquet sports 3 times a week(-47% ACM)
  • Everyday life: Brush your teeth(-25% ACM)
  • Sleep: Sleep 7 hours a day. (fall asleep between 22-24 o'clock) earlier +43% ACM, later +15% ACM(controversial)
• Other
  • Weight: Lose weight(-54% ACM)

6. Reference

6.1. Input

6.1.1. Solid

• Plain boiled pork
  • JAMA子刊: 食用红肉和加工肉类会增加心脏病和死亡风险！鱼肉和家禽肉则不会
    • Reference: Associations of Processed Meat, Unprocessed Red Meat, Poultry, or Fish Intake With Incident Cardiovascular Disease and All-Cause Mortality
    • Increased red meat intake is associated with risk of death. Respondents who increased red meat intake by at least half a serving per day on average over eight years had a 10% increase in ACM over the next eight years. (HR, 1.10[95%CI, 1.04-1.17])
    • Eating two servings of read or processed meat(excluding poultry or fish) per week increases ACM by 3%.

    P.S. Half serving of red meat is equivalent to 14g processed red meat or 40g unprocessed red meat

    • 
  • 红肉和白肉最大的区别是什么？为啥要这么分呢？
• Fruits and vegetables
  • 每年54万人死亡, 竟是因为水果吃得少！？这已成十大死亡因素之一！
    • Reference: Estimated Global, Regional, and National Cardiovascular Disease Burdens Related to Fruit and Vegetable Consumption: An Analysis from the Global Dietary Database (FS01-01-19)
    • A daily intake of 200g fresh fruit can reduce ACM by 17%, the risk of diabetic macrovascular complications (e.g. stroke, ischemic heart disease, etc.) by 13%, and the risk of diabetic small blood vessel complications (e.g. diabetic nephropathy, diabetic eye disease, diabetic foot disease, etc.) by 28%.
  • 《自然》子刊: 每天二两西兰花, 健康长寿都有啦！分析近6万人23年的数据发现, 吃含黄酮类食物与死亡风险降低20%相关丨临床大发现
    • Reference: Flavonoid intake is associated with lower mortality in the Danish Diet Cancer and Health Cohort
    • Eating flavonoid-rich foods linked to 20% lower risk of death
    • 
    • "Interestingly, these threshold levels exist well within daily dietary achievable limits: one cup of tea, one apple, one orange, 100g of blueberries, and 100g of broccoli would provide most of the flavonoid subclasses and over 500mg of total flavonoids."says Dr. Bondonno.
• Chili
  • 辣椒成死亡克星？据调研, 常吃辣患病死亡风险可降低61%
    • Reference 1: Chili pepper consumption and mortality in Italian adults
    • Reference 2: The Association of Hot Red Chili Pepper Consumption and Mortality: A Large Population-Based Cohort Study
    • Another study from Plos One in 2017 looked at 16,179 people aged 18+ and followed them up to 19 years. It was found that among the 4946 patients who died, the ACM rate was 21.6% for those who ate chili peppers, compared with 33.6% for those who did not eat chili peppers. For those who ate spicy food more than four times a week, the overall risk of death was reduced by 23%, and the risk of cardiovascular death was reduced by 34%.
• Eggs
  • 每天多吃半个蛋, 增加7%的全因和心血管死亡风险？
    • Reference: NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study, Egg and cholesterol consumption and mortality from cardiovascular and different causes in the United States: A population-based cohort study
    • Each additional half a whole egg/day was associated with a 7% (HR 1.07; 95% CI 1.06–1.08; P < 0.001) higher risk of all-cause mortality.In hypothetical substitution analyses, we found 6%, 8%, 9%, 7%, 13%, and 10% lower all-cause mortality when replacing half a whole egg (25 g/day) with equivalent amounts of egg whites/substitutes, poultry, fish, dairy products, nuts, and legumes, respectively.
    • Egg
• Nuts
  • 哈佛20年研究: 吃核桃的人更长寿, 显著减少全因死亡, 延长寿命
    • Reference: Association of Walnut Consumption with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality and Life Expectancy in US Adults
    • The analysis found that regular consumption of walnuts can prolong life and reduce the risk of death from cardiovascular disease. Compared with no walnuts, eating more than 5 servings(1 serving defined as 28g) of walnuts per week increased healthy life expectancy by 1.3 years and reduced the risk of SCM by 14%, and the risk of cardiovascular mortality by 25%.
  • 研究: 每日食生坚果, 死亡率降20%
    • Reference 1: Association of nut consumption with total and cause-specific mortality
    • Reference 2: APG_Health-&-Nutrition-Research-Brochure_DEC-19-18
    • The researchers found that those who ate less than 1 ounce servings of tree nuts per week had a 7 percent lower mortality rate. Those who ate 1 ounce per week had an 11% reduction in mortality; those who ate 2 per week had a 13% reduction; those who ate 5 to 6 per week had a 15% reduction; and those who ate more than 7 per week had a 20% reduction in mortality.
    • Two other premed research papers published in the Public Library of Science Online Journal and BioMed Central presented cross-sectional data at the start of the trial. Both studies evaluated 7,216 subjects and the relationship between the frequency and amount of nuts they consumed.Those who ate more than three servings of nuts(including pistachios) a week had a 39 percent lower mortality rate.
• Sodium(Seriously controversial)
  • Eur Heart J: 钠摄入量与预期寿命, 全因死亡率的关系
    • Reference: Messerli F H, Hofstetter L, Syrogiannouli L, et al. Sodium intake, life expectancy, and all-cause mortality[J]. European heart journal, 2021, 42(21): 2103-2112.
    • 
    • Among the 181 countries included in this analysis, we found a positive correlation between sodium intake and healthy life expectancy at birth (β = 2.6 years/g of daily sodium intake, R² = 0.66, P < 0.001), as well as healthy life expectancy at age 60(β = 0.3 years/g of daily sodium intake, R² = 0.60, P = 0.048) but not for death due to non-communicable diseases(β = 17 events/g of daily sodium intake, R² = 0.43, P = 0.100). Conversely, all-cause mortality correlated inversely with sodium intake (β = -131 events/g of daily sodium intake, R² = 0.60, P < 0.001). In a sensitivity analysis restricted to 46 countries in the highest income class, sodium intake continued to correlate positively with healthy life expectancy at birth (β = 3.4 years/g of daily sodium intake, R² = 0.53, P < 0.001) and inversely with all-cause mortality (β = -168 events/g of daily sodium intake, R² = 0.50, P < 0.001).
    • This (extensive) study links higher sodium intake with significantly lower ACM
    • Extended interpretation and discussion of the paper: A Fresh Foray in the Salt Wars: Life Expectancy Higher With Greater Sodium Intake
  • NEJM/Lancet: 不要吃太多盐, 中国饮食所致心血管病和癌症死亡全球第一, 吃低钠盐可降低全因死亡率
    • However, many studies show that use low sodium salts can reduce the probability of a series of diseases and have a positive impact on the reduction of ACM.
• Carbohydrates(Seriously controversial)
  • 低碳生酮饮食(四)碳水化合物与长期死亡率
    • Reference: The Lancet Public Health - Dietary carbohydrate intake and mortality: a prospective cohort study and meta-analysis
    • The less carbs, the shorter the lifespan. However, more carbs also slightly shorten lifespan. 50% carbs are associated with the longest lifespan.
    • 
  • 最强营养搭配！BMJ: 这么吃, 心血管疾病和死亡风险更低
• Betel nut
  • 如何看待槟榔嚼出来的癌症？槟榔致癌风险究竟有多大？ - 丁香医生的回答 - 知乎
    • Reference: Chewing Betel Quid and the Risk of Metabolic Disease, Cardiovascular Disease, and All-Cause Mortality: A Meta-Analysis(https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0070679)
    • Chewing betel nut increases ACM by 21%
• Caloric Restriction
  • 怎么看待BBC《进食, 断食与长寿》？
    • Animal experiments show that CR (caloric restriction, i.e. eating less) delayed multiple disease morbidity and mortality in rhesus monkeys. Compared with CR animals, normally fed monkeys had a 2.9-fold increased risk of various diseases and a 3.0-fold increased risk of death.
    • 
• Complex
  • 最强营养搭配！BMJ: 这么吃, 心血管疾病和死亡风险更低
  • Associations of fat and carbohydrate intake with cardiovascular disease and mortality: prospective cohort study of UK Biobank participants
    • By analyzing these participants' data, the researchers found that carbohydrate (sugar, starch, and fiber) and protein intake were non-linearly associated with all-cause mortality, while fat was linearly associated with all-cause mortality. Among them, higher sugar intake was associated with a higher risk of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease, while higher intake of saturated fatty acids was associated with a higher risk of all-cause mortality.
    • Fig 1: The relationship between various nutrients and ACM
    • 
    • Fig 2: The relationship between various nutrients and cardiovascular disease
    • 
    • **Further research showed that among all dietary patterns, the dietary pattern with the lowest risk of all-cause mortality was: 10-30g high fiber, 14-30% protein, 10-25% monounsaturated fatty acids, 5%-7% polyunsaturated fatty acids and 20%-30% starch intake. **
    • Optimum energy source ratio: <24% starch, 15%-17% protein, >15% monounsaturated fatty acid, <15% sugar, 6% saturated fatty acid, 6% polyunsaturated fatty acid, >30ghigh fiber
  • BMJ | 常吃薯片汉堡巧克力等食品, 平均死亡年龄仅仅为58岁, 死亡风险剧增
    • Rico-Campà A, Martínez-González M A, Alvarez-Alvarez I, et al. Association between consumption of ultra-processed foods and all cause mortality: SUN prospective cohort study[J]. bmj, 2019, 365.
    • Srour B, Fezeu L K, Kesse-Guyot E, et al. Ultra-processed food intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: prospective cohort study (NutriNet-Santé)[J]. bmj, 2019, 365.
    • Lawrence M A, Baker P I. Ultra-processed food and adverse health outcomes[J]. bmj, 2019, 365.

6.1.2. Liquid

• Milk
  • 《柳叶刀》调研21个国家13万人: 每天1斤牛奶或酸奶, 心血管死亡风险下降23%
  • Reference: Association of dairy intake with cardiovascular disease and mortality in 21 countries from five continents (PURE): a prospective cohort study
  • People who ate two servings of dairy products a day had a 17% lower risk of all-cause death, a 23% lower risk of cardiovascular death, and a 33% lower risk of stroke compared to those who didn't eat dairy. (one serving was 244 grams of milk/yogurt, 15 grams of cheese, or 5 grams of butter)
• Tea
  • 10万中国人随访7年发现, 每周喝三次茶与全因死亡风险降低15%, 预期寿命增加1.26年相关
  • Reference: Tea consumption and the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: The China-PAR project
  • 中国成年人饮茶与死亡风险的前瞻性关联研究
  • A total of 34,661 deaths occurred in the 438,443 subjects included in the analysis during 11.1 years of follow-up.Compared with never tea drinkers, current non-daily tea drinkers and daily tea drinkers had HR values (95%CI) of all-cause mortality of 0.89 (0.86-0.91) and 0.92 (0.88-0.95), respectively. By gender The analysis showed that the protective effect of tea drinking on the risk of all-cause mortality was mainly seen in males (P<0.05 for interaction).
• Sugar-free (sweet) beverages
  • 「无糖饮料使死亡风险增加 26 %」, 是真的吗？
    • Participants who consumed ≥1 cup/day of mixed soft drinks had an 18% increased risk of death compared with those who consumed <1 cup/month. Consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks or sugar-free soft drinks was associated with an 11% and 27% increased risk of death, respectively.
    • 
  • Association Between Soft Drink Consumption and Mortality in 10 European Countries
• Sugary drinks
  • 可乐和奶茶, 增加全因死亡率高达62%！果汁降低免疫力, 影响肝代谢！含糖饮料那些事
    • 1 cup of sugar-sweetened beverages per day increases all-cause mortality by 7%, and 2 cups increases all-cause mortality by 21%
    • During 34 years of follow-up, the researchers found that those who drank 2 cups a day had a 21% higher risk of death overall, a 31% higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease, and a 16% higher risk of death from cancer than those who drank 1 or less sugar-sweetened beverages a month.
    • Drinking one extra sugar-sweetened beverage per day was associated with a 7% increased risk of overall death, a 10% increased risk of cardiovascular disease, and a 16% increased risk of cancer-related death.
    • A paper published in the "BMJ" proves that sugar-sweetened beverages can increase the risk of cancer. The overall cancer risk associated with sugar-sweetened beverages was 18% higher than usual, and 100% freshly squeezed fruit juice also increased the overall cancer risk by 12%.
• Juice
  • JAMA子刊: 100%纯果汁可能比含糖饮料更危险
    • Consuming an extra 12-ounce serving of sugar-sweetened beverages per day was associated with an 11% increased risk of all-cause mortality.
    • Consuming an extra 12-ounce serving of fruit juice per day was associated with a 24% increased risk of all-cause mortality.
• Coffee
  • 重磅！多篇研究证实喝咖啡与人群全因死亡率降低直接相关
  • 科普 | 喝咖啡又多了一个新理由: 降低死亡率！
  • 地中海成年人咖啡消耗量及全因, 心血管疾病和癌症的死亡率
    • In the most recent meta-analysis, the study included 40 studies and 3,852,651 subjects from different countries.In this meta-analysis, non-linear relationships between coffee intake and all-cause mortality, CVD and cancer mortality were shown. Two cups of coffee per day were associated with the lowest cancer mortality (RR = 0.96), 2.5 cups per day for CVD mortality (RR = 0.83), and 3.5 cups per day for all-day mortality (RR = 0.85). And as coffee consumption increased, mortality did not further decrease or increase.
• Spermidine
  • Science: 科学背书！从精液中发现的亚精胺, 竟然有着抗衰老, 抗癌, 保护心血管和神经, 改善肥胖和2型糖尿病等逆天神效
  • 饮食中亚精胺摄入量高会降低死亡率

6.1.3. Gas

• Smoking
  • 即使是低强度吸烟, 也增加死亡风险！
    • Among the 42,416 men and 86,735 women(aged 35-89 years with no previous disease), 18,985 men (45%) and 18,072 women (21%) were current smokers, with 33% of men and 39% of women not smoking daily. 8866 men (21%) and 53 912 women (62%) never smoked. During follow-up, the hazard ratios for all-cause mortality compared with never smoking were 1.17 (95% CI 1.10-1.25) and 1.54 (1.42-1.67) for <10 cigarettes per day or ≥10 cigarettes per day, respectively. Hazard ratios were similar regardless of age or gender. The diseases most closely associated with daily smoking are respiratory cancers, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and gastrointestinal and vascular diseases. People who quit smoking at the time of recruitment had lower mortality rates than current daily smokers.
    • Smokers lose 11-12 years of life on average.
  • 吸烟让人过瘾是什么原理？有节制的吸烟依旧有害吗？

6.1.4. Illumination

• Sunbathe
  • 晒太阳和死亡率的关系, 如何科学, 安全的晒太阳？
    • A 26-year Danish study found that more sun exposure significantly increased life expectancy, and even patients with skin cancer caused by excessive sun exposure lived an average of 6 years longer than the average person.

6.1.5. Medicine

• NMN
• Metformin
  • “胍”吹必看 丨我就是神药——二甲双胍
    • Metformin not only plays a protective role in various tumors, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, but also plays a role in obesity, liver disease, kidney disease and aging.
  • 二甲双胍2020最值得了解的“吃瓜”大新闻——护胃, 健脑, 抗衰, 防癌还是致癌？
  • 二甲双胍真的那么神吗？美研究: 父亲服用二甲双胍或致子女有缺陷
  • 
  • Adverse reactions
    • As a drug that has been used for nearly a hundred years, the adverse reactions of metformin have been very clear. The common ones are: vitamin B12 deficiency (7%-17.4%), gastrointestinal adverse reactions (up to 53%), fatigue (9%), headache (6%).
    • Serious but infrequent adverse reactions include lactic acidosis, liver damage.
    • Studies have also shown that it may be teratogenic to the fetus
• Multi-vitamins
  • 服用复合维生素可降低癌症危险8%, 其他效果并不显著
• Glucosamine
  • 神奇！氨糖降低心血管死亡率65%, 与定期运动效果相当
  • The latest research from West Virginia University found that glucosamine (chondroitin) can reduce cardiovascular mortality by 65% and reduce overall mortality by 39%, which is equivalent to regular exercise.
  • The study used National Health and Nutrition Examination (NHANES) data from 16,686 adults from 1999 to 2010. Participants were followed for a median of 107 months, and 648 of them took 500-1000 mg of glucosamine/chondroitin daily for more than one year on a regular basis.
• Spermidine
  • Science: 科学背书！从精液中发现的亚精胺, 竟然有着抗衰老, 抗癌, 保护心血管和神经, 改善肥胖和2型糖尿病等逆天神效
  • Spermidine is the most easily absorbed polyamine from the human gut. Spermidine is found in high amounts in many foods, such as fresh green peppers, wheat germ, cauliflower, broccoli, mushrooms and various cheeses, especially in soy products such as natto, shiitake mushrooms and durian. In this experiment, the researchers selected 829 participants aged 45-84 for a 20-year follow-up to analyze the potential association between dietary spermidine intake and human mortality.
  • The study found that women's spermidine intake was higher than men's, and the intake decreased with age. The main sources of spermidine were whole grains (13.4%), apples and pears (13.3%), salads (9.8%), sprouts (7.3%) and potatoes (6.4%). The study divided the population into three groups based on spermidine intake, low intake (<62.2 µmol/d), moderate intake (62.2–79.8 µmol/d), and high intake (>79.8 µmol/d). A total of 341 deaths were recorded during follow-up, including 137 from vascular disease, 94 from cancer, and 110 from other causes. The crude mortality rates for the low, middle, and high groups were calculated to be 40.5%, 23.7%, and 15.1%, respectively. These data indicate a significant inverse relationship between spermidine intake and all-cause mortality. The relationship remained significant with gradual adjustment for age, sex, and calorie ratios.
• Complex
  • 《自然》子刊深度综述: 如何开发抗衰老药
  • 

6.2. Output

6.2.1. Racquet Sports

• 哪种运动性价比最高？权威医学杂志“柳叶刀”给出答案了
  • 一周三次, 每次45-60分钟, 挥拍运动, 降低~47%全因死亡率
  • 羽毛球, 乒乓球, 网球等都算挥拍运动, 但由于西化研究背景, 可能指网球更多. 这隐式的表达了全身锻炼更为重要

6.2.2. Walk

• 走路降低全因死亡率超过50%！每天走多少步最合适？《JAMA》子刊超10年研究告诉你答案
  • 
  • 注1: 这项研究参与者的平均年龄为45.2岁
  • 注2: 平均步数的多少与职业有关, 此项研究仅表明相关性, 还没有更深度的因果分析

6.2.3. Tooth brushing

• 50万国人研究证实: 不好好刷牙, 致癌！血管疾病也会增多！
  • 经常不刷牙的人: 癌症, 慢性阻塞性肺病及肝硬化风险分别增加了9%, 12%和25%, 过早死亡风险增加25%.

6.2.4. Bath

• 定期洗澡降低心血管疾病发作风险
  • 与每周一至两次泡澡或根本不泡澡相比, 每天洗热水澡可以降低28%的心血管疾病总风险, 降低26%的中风总风险, 脑出血风险下降46%. 而浴缸浴的频率与心源性猝死的风险增加无关.

6.2.5. Housework(for aging males)

• Housework Reduces All-Cause and Cancer Mortality in Chinese Men
  • 72岁之后男性每周做重型家务可以减少29%平均死亡率
  • 重型家务: 吸尘, 擦地板, 拖地, 擦洗窗户, 洗车, 搬动家具, 搬煤气罐等等.
  • 轻型家务: 掸灰尘, 洗碗, 手洗衣服, 熨烫, 晾衣服, 做饭, 买日用品等等.

6.2.6. Sleep

• 超30万亚洲人数据: 每天睡几个小时最有益长寿？
  • 在男性中, 与睡眠时长为7小时相比: 睡眠持续时间≥10小时与全因死亡风险增加34%相关；
  • 
  • 在女性中, 与睡眠持续时间7小时相比: 睡眠持续时间≥10小时与全因死亡风险增加48%相关；
  • 
• 颠覆认知！加拿大研究发现: 早睡比熬夜或许更伤身, 几点睡才好？
  • 其中一个结论为, 就寝时间与全因死亡率的关联性强, 过早睡觉和过晚睡觉都会影响健康, 但是早睡增加的全因死亡率比晚睡增加的死亡率高, 早睡增加了43%的死亡风险, 而晚睡增加了15%的死亡风险.
  • 这项调查研究, 还存在很多局限性, 比如没有直接证明就寝时间与死亡的关系, 仅仅说明相关性, 通过参与人群自我报告统计睡眠时间, 数据不够客观

6.3. Other

6.3.1. Emotion

• 悲观情绪与更高的全因死亡率和心血管疾病死亡率有关, 但乐观情绪并不能起到保护作用
  • 在1993-1995年间, 一项针对50岁以上澳大利亚人健康的双胞胎研究中包括了生活取向测试(LOT), 其中包含乐观和悲观的项目. 平均20年后, 参与者与来自澳大利亚国家死亡指数的死亡信息相匹配. 在2,978名具有很多可用分数的参与者中, 有1,068人死亡. 生存分析测试了各种乐观因素和悲观情绪分数与任何原因, 癌症, 心血管疾病或其他已知原因的死亡率之间的关联. 年龄调整后的悲观量表上的核心与全因和心血管疾病死亡率相关(每1个标准差单位的危险比, 95％置信区间和p值1.134, 1.065–1.207, 8.85×10 –5和1.196, 1.045–1.368, 0.0093 ), 但不会因癌症死亡. 乐观得分与悲观得分之间的相关性很弱(年龄调整后的等级相关系数= − 0.176), 但与总死亡率或特定原因死亡率没有显着相关性. 反向因果关系(引起悲观情绪的疾病)是不可能的, 因为在那种情况下, 心血管疾病和癌症都会导致悲观情绪.

6.3.2. Wealth

• JAMA子刊: 贫富差距真能影响寿命？这可能是真的！
  • 该研究使用1994-1996年第一次收集的数据, 并通过生存模型来分析净资产和长寿之间的关联. 结果显示, 共收纳5414 名参与者, 平均年龄为 46.7岁, 包括 2766 名女性. 较高的净资产与较低的死亡风险相关. 特别是在兄弟姐妹和双胞胎中(n = 2490), 在较高的净资产和较低的死亡率之间观察到类似的关联, 表明拥有更多财富的兄弟姐妹或双胞胎比拥有更少财富的兄弟姐妹/双胞胎活得更久.

6.3.3. Weight

• JAMA子刊: 减肥要趁早, 才能有效降低死亡率风险
  • 对体重减轻的死亡率风险评估发现, 体重从肥胖减轻到超重的成年人与稳定肥胖人群相比, 全因死亡率降低了54％(危险比为0.46), 然而从成年初期的超重减轻到中年以前的正常体重的人群的死亡率风险并未降低(风险比为1.12).

6.3.4. 2019-nCov

• Magnitude, demographics and dynamics of the effect of the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic on all-cause mortality in 21 industrialized countries
  • 目前来看, 新冠死亡率(美国)在1.5%左右, 人均预期寿命减少了2年
• 如何看待美国CDC宣称新冠死亡人数被高估？
• NVSS deaths